Peoples behavior Essay Example for Free

Peoples behavior Essay Whenever I encounter any person from another culture, I am often struck by how much that person represents and is different from the idea I have of that culture. Particularly if the idea I have of that culture’s person is seen from his perspective. A recent conversation with a student of Japanese ancestry highlighted to me this realization. When I first saw him, I assumed that he would speak English with an accent or with some difficulty. To my surprise, it turned out that he was a native English speaker having been born in the United States. Sharing the experience with a friend, she related to me that one of her acquaintances who was born in Hong Kong who had difficulty with being understood in English because of a difference in accent despite having English as a first language. These incidents are prime examples of how cultural stereotypes. Considering the number of foreign students alone, many universities and other social institutions should be developing the competencies to accommodate their communication and cultural assimilation needs. Like in the article written by Brink Lindsey in 2007 titled The Culture Gap for the Cato Institute, culture, statistically and in practice, is an issue that is asserting itself significantly. Without these measures, many people are liable to have negative experiences associated with cultural difference which can motivate them to be ashamed or defensive about their heritage. Having had my own positive and negative experience in being associated with my culture, I know first hand the need to understand culture on an individual level. It has been very helful too that my recent experience with other cultures has been positive and has allowed me to constructively learn from the experience. Had it been otehrwiese, I can easily see myself to develop negative concepts regarding Japanese or Chinese cultures since I believe in positive reinforcement. More than anything else, communication ad technology is creating new dimensions to cultural exposure and exchange. Many of the stereotypes we have of cultures is being challenged not so much because of changes in these cultures itself. Even more importantly, I realize that my culture influences what I see in other in the same way that other peoples cultural backgrounds influence what they see in me.

Indian Hegemony in South Asia

Indian Hegemony in South Asia India has been given a tag as the Regional Hegemon of South Asia. If not formally,then atleast the intentions are tagged as possessing hegemonic tendencies. This paper looks at the concept of Hegemony, Regional, the various reasons responsible for such a view and the various outlooks. I also throw light on the foreign policy of India to stress on the non-hegemonic tendencies of India. India believes in peaceful coexistence. The most important aspect which I wish to bring out is the change in the international scenario that makes Indias hegemonic status tough to survive. SOUTH ASIA A general outlook and evolution South Asia is the southern region of the Asian continent. South Asia typically consists of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Some definitions may also include Afghanistan, Burma, Tibet, and the British Indian Ocean Territories. Iran is also included in the UN subregion of Southern Asia,  [i]  although many sources consider Iran as being part of West Asia. South Asia is home to well over one fifth of the worlds population, making it both the most populous and most densely populated geographical region in the world. The region has often seen conflicts and political instability, including wars between the regions two nuclear-armed states, Pakistan and India. While the South Asia had never been a coherent geopolitical region, it has a distinct geographical identity. The boundaries of South Asia vary based on how  [ii]  South Asia is defined. South Asias north, east, and west boundaries vary based on definitions used. South Asias southern bord er is the Indian Ocean. The UN subregion of Southern Asias northern boundary would be the Himalayas, its western boundary would be made up of the Iraq-Iran border, Turkey-Iran border, Armenia-Iran border, and the Azerbaijan-Iran border. Its eastern boundary would be the India-Burma border and the Bangladesh-Burma border. Most of this region is a subcontinent resting on the Indian Plate (the northerly portion of the Indo-Australian Plate) separated from the rest of Eurasia. It was once a small continent before colliding with the Eurasian Plate about 50-55 million years ago and giving birth to the Himalayan range and the Tibetan plateau. It is the peninsular region south of the Himalayas and Kuen Lun mountain ranges and east of the Indus River and the Iranian Plateau, extending southward into the Indian Ocean between the Arabian Sea (to the southwest) and the Bay of Bengal (to the southeast).The region is home to an astounding variety of geographical features, such as glaciers, rainforests, valleys, deserts, and grasslands that are typical of much larger continents. It is surrounded by three water bodies the Bay of Bengal, the Indian Ocean and the Arabian Sea. Almost all South Asian countries were under direct or indirect European Colonial subjugation at some point. Much of modern India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Myanmar were gradually occupied by Great Britain starting from 1757, reaching their zenith in 1857 and ruling till 1947. Nepal and Bhutan were to some extent protectorates of Great Britain until after World War II. In the millennia long history of South Asia, this European occupation period is rather short, but its proximity to the present and its lasting impact on the region makes it prominent. The network of means of transportation and communication as well as banking and training of requisite workforce, and also the existing rail, post, telegraph, and education facilities have evolved out of the base established in the colonial era, often called the British Raj. As an aftermath of World War II, most of the region gained independence from Europe by the late 1940s.Tibet at times has governed itself as an independent state and at other times has had various levels of association with China. It came under Chinese control in the 18th century, in spite of British efforts to seize possession of this Chinese protectorate at the beginning of the 20th century. Since 1947, most South Asian countries have achieved tremendous progress in all spheres. Most notable achievements are in the fields of education; industry; health care; information technology and services based on its applications; research in the fields of cutting edge sciences and technologies; defence related self-relianc e projects; international/global trade and business enterprises and outsourcing of human resources. Areas of difficulty remain, however, including religious extremism, high levels of corruption, disagreements on political boundaries, and inequitable distribution of wealth. However,a combined effort by the nations has helped the nations in overcoming the various obstacles and settling the disputes peacefully. India has played a major role in the development of South Asia as a region of resources,technology and even as a power to some extent. However,at several occasions the actions of our nation have been seen as steps taken towards the goal of becoming the Regional Hegemon. HEGEMONY Hegemony is a term defined as the leadership(formal) especially of a state within a group of states. This is how any standard dictionary would define hegemony  [iii]  . In Hegemony and Socialist Strategy, political theorists Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe define hegemony as a type or form of political relation in which a given collectivity performs some kind of social task which is not natural to them  [iv]  .However, the term hegemon is generally used in a negative sense to signify dominance, coercion or influence in the vaious fields. India has often been accused of possessing hegemonic tendencies in its foreign affairs and policies by various writers and nations altogether. A countrys foreign policy, in general, aims to achieve three basic objectives-securities, stability, and status (George Liska ). George Modelski in his book A theory of Foreign Policy defined foreign policy as the system of activities evolved by communities for changing the behaviour of other states and adjusting their own activities to the international environment  [v]  . In this sense any country big or small, which endevours to further its policies to achieve its desired world order is hegemonistic. The word hegemony is pejoratively used when the great powers practice policies in seeking predominance over others. Literally hegemon means a leader who seeks predominance over others. This requires the existence of some subordinate states too, whose politics and policies hegemon would try to influence. In the Ancient World, Sparta was the hegemon (leader) city-state of the Peloponnesian League, in the 6th century BC, and King Philip II of Macedon was the hegemon of the League of Corinth, in 337 BC, (a kingship he willed to his son, Alexander the Great); in Eastern Asia, it occurred in China, during the Spring and Autumn Period ( 770-480 BC), when the weakened rule of the Zhou Dynasty lead to the relative autonomy of the Five Hegemons who were appointed, by feudal lord conferences, and were nominally obliged to uphold the Zhou dynastic imperium over the subordinate states. In late sixteenth- and early seventeenth-century-Japan, hegemon applies to its Three Unifiers   Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu   who exercised hegemony over most of the country. In the modern world hegemony has contours in imperialism. Imperialistic powers all over their empire had hegemony. After Second World War the beginning of cold war led to a grouping up of countries in t wo major camps. The groups had strong NATO countries as well as weak countries like Pakistan. Weak countries, which entered into such alliances to secure themselves from the hegemony of other countries, were subjected to veiled hegemony, and military bases of the stronger countries were often accommodated there. This has been an accusation for India too for several years. India has been accused of being influential in policies of different nations by making them dependent on it in terms of economy, military strength, resources and even in the political aspect. REGION AND REGIONAL What precisely is meant by the region which is specified in the term Regional Hegemony. We talk of South Asia as a region. Amitava Acharya in his Regional Worlds in a Post-hegemonic Era says Regional world subsumes regional order and regional institutions, as well as economic regionalization. Regional Worlds are not just material constructs.  [vi]  They offer sites for ideational and normative contestations, resistance and compromises, involving both states and civil societies which transcend regional boundaries and overlap into other regional and global spaces. Regional worlds are not autonomous entities, nor purely subsets of global dynamics. They create, absorb and repatriate ideational and material forces that make world politics and order. This definition brings out the important aspect of the term regional which are economic, ideational and so on. It is true that regional worlds are not autonomous entities since nations within a region are not only dependent on each other b ut are also affected by as small factors as the water problem which a any day take a bigger form. The policies of one nation affect the other in some way. Winston Churchill and Walter Lippmann were of the view that world order could best be attained by regional spheres of influence. Robert W.Cox in his Gramsci,Hegemony and International Relations: An essay in method, talks of the different phases in the world hegemony where he mentions the period of U.S hegemony from 1945-1965 and then mentions the phase which starts from 1965 which was characterized by the fall of the U.S hegemony with the rise of the third world and the fragmentation of the world economy  [vii]  . Amitava Acharya puts up a question asking whether the end of US hegemony might open the door to the rise of regional hegemonies such as East Asia under Chinese, South Asia under Indian, the Caucasus and Baltics under Russian, and southern Africa under South African, west Africa under Nigerian and south America under Brazilian, dominance. Would the end of American hegemony be replaced by such distinct or over-lapping regional hegemonies? Such questions have often come up and have forced the nations to think of any single nation progressing at a higher speed as a potential hegemon. In his Tragedy of Great Power Politics, John Mearshimer argues that great powers, including rising or aspiring great powers seek to achieve regional hegemony, a goal more necessary and attainable than global hegemony  [viii]  . It is true that in todays bigger than before world, global hegemony is a distant goal though some still vouch for the U.S hegemony. The point of concern comes to the fear of regio nal hegemons due to Hegemony often being understood as a first step towards imperialism. Regional imperialism of a kind in limited sense can not be avoided. If a country is bigger or stronger its foreign policy stakes would be higher and its objectives are to be set accordingly which may or may not be compatible with the interests of other regional states. South Asia as such did not have any real issues, however a psychological scare of big brother often posited smaller states in this region in defensive posture more as an over reaction. India is one such example of a state caught in a dilemna. INDIAS FOREIGN POLICY- non hegemonic When India got liberation from the imperialistic rule of British Empire in 1947, it was to adopt a policy, which should fulfill its aspirations of a changed world order and thereby confer a status, provide the country an economic stability and security to its borders. The ideological cover of non-alignment and panch sheel was best suited for this. One of the basic tenets of Panch sheel is peaceful co-existence, which implies non-interference in the internal matters of neighbors. In an effort to achieve its objective of word order where new nation states could progress together was to be the objective of Indias Foreign policy. Thus the hegemony over the neighboring states or in South Asia couldnot have been a part of Indias Foreign Policy. On the contrary it was against the policy of peaceful co-existence and Panch sheel. Indias efforts to allay the fears of its neighbors was one of the highlights in all these fora, be it NAM conferences or other international symposiums. Indias forei gn policy of non-alignment and its assumed role of third world leader however is one of its strength. But in a natural corollary to this surrounding countries felt weak and insecure due to natural fear lest India start acting as big brother in the region. Though Indias foreign policy of non alignment was more aimed at providing a new world order where the new states could survive without participating in the cold war between the super powers of post world war era, a big brother scare among the smaller countries is logical and could not have been avoided. There are various reasons that have led to these fears. WHY THE TAG? Countries that surround India, such as Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bagladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Burma are nowhere at par with India, be it in their size, population, economic development or skilled human resources. The natural resources available in theses countries also do not make these countries competitive. India dominates the whole area geographically. She is the only country that shares a large coast line with all the other six states while none of them have common borders with each other. China after the occupation on Tibet in 1950,reached the borders of the Asian subcontinent but faces problems of accessibility due to the difficulties of the northern terrain. K.M.Pannikar said Geography constitutes the permanent basis of every nations history. It is true since it is because of the rich geographical features that India possesses, landlocked nations like Nepal and Bhutan can hardly survive economically without Indias cooperation. Pakistan and Bangladesh too are dependent on India for water supply. Giantism as called by John.P.Lewis has its far reaching regional ramifications. The enmity with Pakistan continues since the partition days and is yet much behind India in all aspects other than nuclear status and that too is unclear. Three wars with Pakistan have almost established military supremacy of India in South Asia. In 1971 war India could successfully achieve its objective of dismembering Pakistan from various issues in spite of opposition of United States of America. Inspite of the various attempts of friendsihp including the recent cultural cross border efforts through Aman Ki Asha, Indo-Pak meetings always end up as what Nawaz Sharif had once described as zero meeting. Pakistan still doesnot grant India the status of MFN (most favoured nation) though SAFTA has been in force for some time now. Although Indias self-perception might be that it has acted with considerable restraint in prior crises with Pakistan, for example, in the 2002 standoff after the attacks on the Indian parliament, in the 1999 Kargil crisis and even in the1971 war, from the Pakis tani perspective the trauma of disintegration suffered in 1971-when India significantly assisted in the creation of Bangladesh-overshadows all Indian actions. China, though not a part of South Asia plays an important ole in the affairs of the region. China remains what Andrew Hurrell calls the best example of pragmatic accommodation  [ix]  and inspite of being a true friend and permanent member in the United Nations Security Council has often participated in discouraging Indias development in military, or as the permanent member of the United Nations Security Council or in the India-Pak wars or even the increasing friendly ties of India and U.S. India is a growing power and is a major market for Chinese goods as well as a major service provider at the global level. Hence, China has often displayed its displeasure at Indias hegemonic tendencies. Nepal is more or less dependent on India for its economic development. Nepals overtures with China in order to have an independence from the shadow of India could be an example of this over defensive posturing. India and Nepal have had a friend ship treaty since the days of King Tribhuvan. The treaty facilitated both countries to have trade across their borders without much of custom formalities. Nepals economic dependence on Indias economy and its geographical land locked position impelled Nepal to have this treaty. Nepal however never stopped searching for alternatives such as route to the sea through India and Bangladesh to increase its international trade. Invitation to China to build roads in Nepal was one such step to send a clear message that their country has other options too and as efforts to avoid dominance by one nation. Bangladesh came into being almost with the single handed initiative of India. Even their Mukti Bahini was trained by Indian Army. Soon after liberation from Pakistan, Bangla Desh started pursuing a policy to exert independence in its foreign policy. The fanatic elements in Bangla Desh however were not satisfied with this subtle and gradual posturing and assassinated their first President Sheikh Mujiburrahman for his being pro-Indian. Governments successively after his assassination had to pursue Controlled Anti Indian Stance in their Foreign policy in order to satisfy their domestic compulsion in expressing opposition to Indian hegemony. Sri Lankas foreign policy has been more independent in the region. However its domestic compulsion and gradual increase in the power of fanatic Buddhist elements in its politics and their pro-majority policies have complicated the domestic politics. This led to rise of Tamil resistant groups in Sri Lanka and then their establishment of a limited control over the Tamil majority areas in Northern and North eastern Sri Lanka. Indias limited role of sending IPKF to restore Sri Lankan control over these areas was also be seen as an effort to prove its hegemony in South Asia. Mohammed Ayoob wrote in India matters, that given its advantages in terms of both technically skilled manpower and command over the English language by a substantial section of the working population, India has the capacity to play an increasingly important role in the sphere of service industries. He also brought in another aspect which could have been responsible for the fear of Indias role as a regional hegemon  [x]  . It could be the strengthening ties between India and U.S. Ayoob brings in an interesting reason for the close bonds between India and U.S. He says Indian and U.S. concerns do not coincide merely on the issue of maintaining a stable and secure order in Asia in general and in South Asia in particular.A major threat to both regional and global stability and securitycomes from a particular variety of terrorism that has targeted both India and the United States. This is true that post the twin tower attacks in U.S,terrorism gained importance all over the world which owes it highlight to U.S because the 11 September attacks proved that terrorism could shake the super powers too. Hence,started the Indo-US friendship which continues and the signing of the nuclear deal was another step towards the friendship. That was another reason which made the neighbours uneasy about Indias increasing power. The question was whether India was trying its hand at friendship with the hegemon to follow it.  [xi]   Absence or weak democratic institutions in these countries, and Indias established democracy has further weakened the ties countries surrounding India. Nepal has had Monarchy for most of the part in last sixty years. The intervals of democratic governments there have so far not been able to establish a workable democracy. Pakistans army still calls the shots even if democratic governments come into power. Bangla Desh has had its own problems with democracy where the successive governments after being elected have tried to wipe out opposition, more of an inheritance from Pakistan. Sri Lanka has had democratic traditions which have weakened, off late, due to the rise of the fanatic elements in politics and government as well. Perhaps, Kants Perpetual Peace works here too in increasing the suspicions of other nations regarding India. The establishment of SAARC meant to have closer regional cooperation could not allay the fears of smaller states around India. It is more used as a forum for venting the feelings against India in a veiled manner. Before each SAARC meeting the diplomatic channels would have been working overtime to manage this in place of finding new avenues of regional cooperation. However the platform is often used to malign the Indian image by doing an all year roun survery of Indian intrevention in the affairs of other nations and that highlights the hegemonic tendencies of India. Indias role of being party to good offices and mediation in managing international crises could be another reason for the rising suspicions. Initially,oweing to the non-aligned status,India was accepted as a mediator by several belligerent states like in the Korean War,South African apartheid and so on. But the Bangladesh crisis was seen as an unnecessary intervention by Pakistan and even the Sri Lankan crisis which later led to the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi. Many such interventions were seen as a display of unwanted disciplinary acts by India just like U.S played the role of a police man in the world scenario post world war. Indias new nuclear status has been seen as a disapproving move by Pakistan , China and several other nations of the world. The world today is basically divided on the basis of nuclear haves and have-nots. India joined the club with its first peaceful nuclear tests in 1974. India refused to sign the discriminatory treaties like NPT and CTBT and went ahead and signed the much criticised nuclear agreement with USA. USA came forward to accept India as a major global player and made an attempt to delink Indo-US relationhship from its relaionship with Pakistan. It was held that Indo-US civil nuclear deal was designed to serve Indian security needs and provide a basis for the development of bi-lateral relations with the USA. Though India declared its intention to sign similar nuclear cooperation treaties with other countries too and that her decision was not against any other nation, Indias nuclear status was not taken in good spirits by te neighbours and even beyond the neighbourhood. Indias role in Afganistan has often been seen as a hegemonic tendency. In the GIGA working papers,Melanie Hanif discussed the Indian involvement in Afganistan and said that India as a rising regional power is the only country in the region that might possess the capabilities,the willingness, and the legitimacy for a long-term engagement in Afghan security.  [xii]  India provides scholarships for Afghan students and fosters its commercial ties with the country, something which has, however,been hindered by Pakistans denial of direct access. India has also offered training to the Afghan National Security Forces, but this has not been realized due to Pakistani opposition.India is committed to development and infrastructure projects in various sectors in Afghanistan, especially the reconstruction of overland roads. In terms of soft power, Indias asset is the high popularity of Indian music, movies and television shows in Afghanistan. With a view to military capabilities, India has en hanced its presence in Central Asia through the establishment of its first airbase outside India, in Farkhor/Aini, Tajikistan.All this points to Indias willingness and preparedness to become more involved in the attempt to reconstruct and stabilize Afghanistan. Although most of the external parties are likely to accept a prominent role of India in Afghanistan,two important veto players remain, one within and one outside South Asia: Pakistan and China. IS INDIA A REGIONAL HEGEMON? All these reasons together see India as a regional hegemon. The tag has resulted in both seeing India as a leader as well as a threat. More than a threat, it is the suspicion and anxiety of other nations, which has given India the tag. Power is seen as a zero sum quality. The power gained by one nation is the loss of the other. India with all the resources and power is hence seen as an expansionist maybe not in the earlier imperialist ways but by means of soft power and mediation. However, it is highly doubtful to call India as the hegemon because hegemony would mean supremacy in decision making and policy making for all the other nations of the region. Pakistan is a major example of Indias faulty hegemony. Andrew Hurrell talks of the potential great powers in the world and calls them BRICs, i.e. Brazil, Russia, India and China.  [xiii]  He says that countries like Brazil, India and China are acquiring enough power to change the face of global politics and economics. However, he also brings out another aspect. He says that though these nations have the capacity to become great powers, these nations share certain uncertainties especially regarding the behaviour of the leader, United States. A second characteristic that these nations share is a sense of vulnerability. It is true for India too. Though the size may increase options and like every other nation, India too may have a belief in its natural right to an influential international role yet it is aware of its vulnerability. When Hurrell talks of India as a great power, he questions what would happen if the developing country identity of India comes into conflict with the aspiring great power identity. This argument brings the as pect of Indias aspirations for being a great power, which would be the aspirations of any nation. Any nation has the goal of being counted among the influential ones. That does not necessarily imply hegemonic tendencies. The most important aspect is the recognition. For India to be a regional hegemon, it is a precondition that other nations acknowledge the position desired. To be a hegemon, India would need the support and recognition by the entire region. This is highly unattainable in todays times of globalization and freedom. All the nations are sovereign and are free to take their decisions on the basis of their national interests. There is interdependence but not domination. There is the whole process of settlement of disputes by mediation but the mediator remains only that and nothing more. The world today is anarchic where there is no overarching authority. There are sections that advocate for some authority but there is no such authority present. Even United States, which could be called once the leader or the hegemon, is met with opposition now by developing nations like India. The Gulf War met with a massive opposition and international pressure. India is nowhere near USA in any development al field. In his book The Production of Space, Henri Lefebvre posits that geographic space is not a passive locus of social relations, but that it is trialectical   constituted by mental space, social space, and physical space   hence, hegemony is a spatial process influenced by geopolitics.  [xiv]  This is true because inspite of being a huge nation India is still behind Japan in the technology aspect. If we look at Asia, we have China as a competitor. Infact, though China is not a part of South Asia, it is very much a part of the decision making process. Whether we talk of the Indo-Pak relations or the Kashmir issue which had affected almost all the nations of South Asia in some way, China ha always had a say. It is quite powerful and enjoys a permanent seat in the United Nations Security Council. It could always be called as the hegemon of Asia if we consider development and relations with U.S to be a criterion for the tag. China has for years maintained a balance in is re lation with the west in spite of it being a communist nation. In spite of being a communist nation, it enjoys a special place in the world. That is power. The benchmark for every Indian step is the Chinese strength. SOUTH ASIA: INDIAS RESPONSIBILITY? K.P.S.Gill in the article Freedom From Fear Regional Security India can redeem South Asia, called South Asia the most volatile area of the world, as the epicenter, the new locus of terrorism, as the venue of a resource-sapping and futile arms race and of a possible and devastating nuclear confrontation  [xv]  . Gill says India is the regional giant of South Asia and accepts that it has been thought of as an ambitious regional hegemon. India is the home to a resurgent economy, led by sections of the hi-tech manufacturing and information technologies sector, has attracted significant and growing international investments and multinational participation. Much of this globalization, though, is still within the category of speculation and predatory capitalism, rather than a deep structural reorientation or long-term commitment by international partners. India is also home to the largest pool of technical and skilled manpower in the world, though its quality may be somewhat uneven. Despite these drawbacks, the countrys potential to seize the opportunities of the new technological revolution is unquestionable. Gill says that India being on the way to the developed status has to take the responsibility of bringing up the entire region. To do this, it must accept the notion of its own centrality, not as hegemon or big brother, but in processes of genuine friendship and shared concerns with its neighbours. But, before doing that India would have to deal with the suspicions regarding Indias interventions and initiatives. This true because even the slightest initiatives taken by any nation for the progress of another nation, are looked at as expansionist and hegemonic tendencies. In the absence of direct imperialism and old forms of power, a new term has come up and that is Soft Power which has been discussed by Joseph Nye is what operates today. In todays times, power has changed its face. It is no more confined o traditional instruments like military and economic assistance, because they are rarely sufficient to deal with the new dilemmas of the world politics. Today multinationals are the ne w sources of the co-optive power. India has gained a lot from these multinationals. As India liberalized her economy, these multinational corporations entered t

Evaluation of theories and practices of Councelling

Evaluation of theories and practices of Councelling Discuss two approaches, evaluate their theory and practice. Which approach is your preference and why? Counselling has been defined by the British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy (BACP, 2009) as talking therapy, which involves a contractual arrangement between the therapist and the client where they meet, in privacy and confidence, to explore a difficulty or distress the client may be experiencing (p. 1). It works through the development of a therapeutic relationship whereby the counsellor actively and attentively listens to the client in order to gain insight and understanding into the difficulties the client is confronted with, from the clients perspective. Using different techniques, the counsellor can try to help the client to work through these difficulties, to understand them, and to solve them or accept them, depending on what the difficulties are. Importantly, counselling does not work by the provision of advice or direction; instead, the counsellor helps the client to gain mastery in directing their own lives. Counselling can be short-term or long-term, as well as individual or provided to families, couples, or organisations (Coren, 2001). Counselling techniques and methods will vary according to the approach or theoretical basis from which a counsellor works. Examples of different approaches to counselling include cognitive-behavioural therapy, solution-focused counselling, art therapy, person-centred counselling, psychodynamic counselling, and trauma therapy. A counsellor might adopt one approach within all of their work or take an eclectic approach whereby the theoretical framework adopted depends on the client (e.g. their age) or the problem (e.g. depression, phobia). The two counselling approaches discussed within this essay are person-centred counselling and cognitive-behavioural therapy. The theory underlying these approaches will be outlined, followed by examples of techniques used, and evidence of efficacy. Person-centred counselling, also known as client-centred or Rogerian counselling, is a humanistic approach to counselling founded by Carl Rogers in the 1950s (Rogers, 1951). The approach is based on the assumption that human beings are experts of themselves and that they have access to their own innate expert resources of self-understanding and self-direction. The role of the counsellor is thus to provide a facilitative environment and relationship for the client to find these resources within themselves. In order to provide this facilitative environment and relationship, the counsellor basis their interactions with the client on three key principles: 1) They are congruent (genuine) with the client, which can involve the counsellor showing their own human traits through appropriate and well-timed personal disclosure. This contrasts many other approaches to counselling, which tend to promote a more formal relationship between counsellor and client. 2) They provide unconditional positive regard, even if a client divulges something that the counsellor disagrees with; the counsellor remains accepting and caring of the client. Rogers believed this was important for clients to grow and reach their full potential. 3) They express  empathy (the ability to understand what the client is feeling) and  understanding towards the client. By providing empathy, the clients feelings are validated, which can be an important part of moving through and beyond those feelings. These three key principles demonstrate how the primary focus in person-centred counselling is the relationship between the counsellor and client. The person-centred counsellor seeks to establish a trusting relationship with the client in whom the client can gradually confront anxieties, confusion and other negative emotions. Central to person-centred counselling is the notion of self-concept, which refers to the perceptions and beliefs the client holds about themselves. The self-concept is influenced by an individuals experience of the world and comprises three components: Self-worth (self-esteem) thoughts about the self, which develop in early childhood and from experiences with parents or guardians. Self-image perceptions of the self, including body image, which can influence personality. Ideal self the self a person would like to be, including goals and ambitions. The  self-concept  is not necessarily consistent with how others view the client, as is the case in people with low self-esteem or conditions such as body dysmorphic disorder (characterised by perceived defects in physical appearance). Rogers based person-centred counselling the assumption that all human beings are seeking a positive self-concept (self-actualisation). It is this innate motivation towards self-fulfilment that is nurtured during person-centred counselling, with the emphasis again being on the clients own resources. Rogers has been criticised for having an overly optimistic view of human beings (Chantler, 2004), as well as focusing too much on a clients ideal self without considering whether this ideal self is realistic (Wilkins, 2003). However, despite this criticism, there is strong evidence supporting the efficacy of the person-centred approach, including a UK-based meta-analysis of scientific studies (Elliot and Freire, 2008). This meta-analysis demonstrated large pre- and post- changes in therapeutic outcomes that were maintained in the long-term. Cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) was founded in the 1960s by Aaron Beck when he observed that during counselling sessions, his clients tended to have an internal dialogue that was often negative and self-defeating. Furthermore, this internal dialogue was observed to influence behaviour. This led to the hypothesis that changing these internal dialogues would lead to changes in behaviour. Thus, CBT focuses on the thoughts, images, beliefs and attitudes held by the client and how these relate to the clients behaviour or way of dealing with emotional problems. CBT takes a problem-solving approach to counselling, where the client and counsellor work collaboratively to understand problems and to develop strategies for tackling them. Clients are taught by counsellors, through guidance and modelling, a new set of skills that they can utilise when confronted with a particular problem. These skills are often focused on reframing negative self-talk in an effort to change ones interpretation of the problem. An event is not necessarily the problem, but more so the individuals interpretation of the event. CBT focuses on the present rather than the past, but does examine how self-defeating thinking patterns might have been formed in early childhood and the impact patterns of thinking might have on how the world is interpreted in the present, as an adult. These patterns of thinking can then be challenged by the counsellor and altered to fit the present. Taking a problem-solving approach means that CBT can offer effective outcomes in relatively short periods of time, most often 3-6 months. As an example, interpersonal psychotherapy for eating disorders has been found to take 8-12 weeks longer than CBT in order to achieve comparable outcomes (Agras et al., 2000). This is an obvious advantage the CBT approach has over other forms of counselling, making it a popular technique and the leading treatment for some mental health issues, such as bulimia (Wilson, Grilo, and Vitousek, 2007). The technique has even been incorporated into health interventions designed to assist overweight and obese individuals in losing weight (Wylie-Rosett et al., 2001) and to facilitate smoking cessation initiatives (Sussman, Ping, and Dent, 2006). CBT differs from other counselling approaches in that sessions have a structure, rather than the person talking freely about whatever comes to mind. At the beginning of counselling, the client meets the counsellor so that they can collaboratively set therapeutic goals to work towards. These goals then become the basis for planning the content of sessions as well as for assigning homework between sessions. The reason for having this structure is that it helps to use the therapeutic time efficiently and ensures that important information is not overlooked. Homework between sessions enables the client to practice and gain mastery in new skills with the opportunity to discuss any problems encountered in the next session. The counsellor takes a more active role at the beginning of counselling and as skills are mastered and the client grasps the principles they find helpful, the client is encouraged to take more responsibility for the content of sessions. The aim is that when the therapeut ic relationship comes to an end, the client is sufficiently empowered to continue working  independently. CBT also differs from other approaches in the nature of the relationship between counsellor and client. Some counselling approaches encourage the client to depend on the counsellor, as part of the treatment process, in an effort to build trust. CBT favours a more equal relationship that is more formal, problem-focused and practical. Such a relationship has been coined by Beck as collaborative empiricism, which emphasises the importance of client and counsellor working together to test out how the ideas behind CBT might apply to the clients individual circumstances (Beck, et al., 1979, Chap. 3). As demonstrated, patient-centred counselling and CBT are very different approaches to counselling, both in terms of structure and the role of the counsellor. In terms of preference, it could be argued that both are valuable, effective approaches to counselling. Evidence shows that they both work and thus preference would be better decided with consideration of the client and their individual needs. Whilst person-centred counselling might be preferable for a client with trust issues or who requires extensive examination of past trauma, CBT might be preferable for someone with an immediate problem or phobia to solve or someone whose problems are primarily governed by negative self-talk. Since CBT works with cognitions and behaviour and person-centred counselling works more with affect and emotion, their application needs to be based on individual context. Agras, W.S., et al., 2000. A multicentre comparison of cognitive behavioural therapy and interpersonal psychotherapy for bulimia nervosa. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, pp.459-466. Beck, A. T., et al., (1979).  Cognitive therapy of depression. New York: Guilford Press. British Association of Counselling Psychotherapy 2009. Ethical Framework for Good Practice in Counselling Psychotherapy. Available from: http://www.bacp.co.uk [cited 09 January 2010]. Chantler, K., 2004. Double-edged sword: power and person-centred counselling. In Moodley, R., Lago, C., and Talahite, A. eds. Carl Rogers counsels a black client. Herefordshire: PCCS Books. Coren, A., 2001. Short- Term Psychotherapy: A Psychodynamic Approach. Palgrave Publishers Ltd. Elliott, R. and Freire, B., 2008. Person-Centred Experiential Therapies Are Highly Effective: Summary of the 2008 Meta-analysis. http://www.bapca.co.uk/uploads/files/Meta-Summary091708.doc. [cited 09 January 2011]. Rogers, Carl.,1951. Client-centered Therapy: Its Current Practice, Implications and Theory. London: Constable. Sussman, S., Sun, P., and Dent, C. W., 2006. A meta-analysis of teen cigarette smoking cessation. Health Psychology, 25(5), pp.549-557. Training and careers in counselling and psychotherapy (BACP) 2009. [online]. http://www.bacp.co.uk/admin/structure/files/pdf/811_t1.pdf [cited 09 January 2011]. Wilkins P.2003 Person-centred therapy in focus. London: SAGE publications Wilson, G.T., Grilo, C.M., and Vitousek, K.M. 2007. Psychological treatment of eating disorders. The  American Journal of Psychology, 62, pp.199-216. Wylie-Rosett., et al., 2001. Computerized weight loss intervention optimizes staff time. Journal of American Dietetic Association, 101, pp. 1155-1162.

Teaching Status Report :: JPE Education Teaching Teachers Essays

Teaching Status Report A lot has changed since my last status report. I have essentially been teaching math lessons on my own since October 11th. It feels really good to have so much responsibility and to become an accepted part of the classroom. I am also realizing how lucky I am to have a cooperating teacher who I am so compatible with. In reference to classroom management and discipline, my cooperating teacher and I have become a team. When he is teaching I serve as another source of discipline, I can talk to students one-on-one who are causing trouble and I can provide help to students so my teacher can continue with the lesson. Furthermore, because I am still working on my authoritative side, when the class gets really out of control my cooperating teacher serves as a reminder that although I may be a student teacher I should be respected like the other teachers. In reference to my authoritative side, it is still a work in progress. I definitely have developed an ability to raise my voice and correct a student when they are misbehaving. However, I still have trouble when the entire class gets out of control and starts talking. Halloween definitely revealed this weakness, the Friday before this holiday was especially stressful because the students were so excited about their plans and had already began eating candy so they were very noisy and they did not want to learn. I tried my best to correct them but my cooperating teacher had to step in. Although I wish I could have handled the situation myself I know this skill of correcting the entire class will come with time and experience. My students’ behaviors and learning abilities are both disappointing and exciting to talk about. It amazes me that some students have the ability to work hard, regardless of their personal lives, and truly want to learn. However, there are some students who have absolutely no desire to be in school. My teacher is still working with the guidance office to see which students have IEPs and should not be in this classroom. I am really frustrated that no action has been taken yet, the school year is quickly going by and it is clear that some of these students need more help than my cooperating teacher and I can provide. Another interesting detail about this problem is that most of the IEPs are behavior related.

The Healthcare Environmental Checklist Essay -- Healthcare

The built environment undoubtedly affects the quality and care to the patients and family members. Patients and family members are expecting from a health care organization a well built environment that is suitable and accessible, caring for family, encouraging or beneficial to wellbeing, confidential, considerate, secure and safe. The environment checklist is an assessment tool that will help healthcare organizational designers and health care administrations accumulate information about consumer’s needs, measure satisfaction, and provide facility comparisons for molding the industry’s best practices. I reviewed the environmental checklist in my facility and discussed with my nursing manager the areas that need improvement and the areas that performing well. The three most important areas that I would address that needs to recover are 1.Information systems in place, 2.Staffing requirements and 3.Patients discharge. 1. Information systems in place. The rising cost of healthcare and the lack of health insurance coverage for over 15% of the U.S. population have appeared as important political, economic and policy concerns. Hospitals have to find ways to develop effectiveness to drive down the cost of their services. Hospital organizations in United States are facing pressures to control costs, and to improve quality outcomes. Information systems (IS) have an integral role in addressing these challenges. Successful presentation of Information systems (IS) in the healthcare industry can create new professional models. Dramatic improvement in technology improves the availability of clinical data with no time and so improves patient outcome and care management. Information technologies can assist in the reform of organizations and h... ...tcomes. Works Cited Fichman, R., Kohli, R., & Krishnan, R. (Eds.) (2010). THE ROLE OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS IN HEALTHCARE ORGANIZATIONS: Synergies from an interdisciplinary perspective. Retrieved from http://www.informs.org/Pubs/ISR/Special-Issues/Special-Issue-on-IS-in-Healthcare Health Information Technology. (2011). Retrieved from http://www.kaiseredu.org/issue-Modules/Health-Information-Technology/Background-Brief.aspx?&lang=en_us&output=json Healthy Work Environments: Standards. (2011). Retrieved from www.aacn.org/WD/HWE/Docs/HWEStandards.pdf Heller, B. R., Oros, M. T., & Durney-Crowley, J. (2011). The Future of Nursing Education: Ten Trends to Watch. Retrieved from http://www.nln.org/nlnjournal/infotrends.htm Hughes, R. G. (2008). Patient Safety and Quality: An Evidence-Based Handbook for Nurses. Retrieved from http://www.ahrq.gov/qual/nurseshdbk/

My Greatest Moment :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I remember one of the greatest moments of my high school career. I have played lacrosse since seventh grade and every year I’ve gotten a little better, or at least I hope I have. My first year I understood most of the rules, could catch, throw, and pick up ground balls. My second year I understood all the rules, could pass well and put my shots where I wanted them. My third year of lacrosse was the first time I had played a high school sport so I think that I developed my skills much more than ever before.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After playing lacrosse for three years I thought that I was getting fairly decent however I had never scored a goal. All of my freshman year I took good aggressive shots and most of them were on goal. In practice I would put many of my shots behind the goalie but it seemed like the goalies in the games were brick walls. I can remember it like it was yesterday I picked up the ball verses Chantilly at the restraining line and carried it to the right corner of the box. The right side is my best side for taking shots; I have a fairly strong right hand with my stick. I took my man one on one, I tried to go outside and he was there so I went on the inside of the defender. He wasn’t ready and I had an open shot about fifteen feet out from the goal, I took it. In an instant the Chantilly goalie was on his knees with his stick in the dust. I felt like the world was paused. Then very slowly I saw him get up and pass the ball to his teammate who took off for our side. He had saved the last shot I would take for that season.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The whole year after I spent time getting in shape and working on my stick skills. At least twice a week I would go and shoot at the tennis courts that were near my house. I worked and worked at getting to be the best lacrosse player I could be. I wanted to know what it felt like to have my name and number announced over the whole field and possibly if I did my very best over the P.A. system in school the next morning.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  * * *   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  During the off-season after my freshman year the head coach, Coach La Chance, was replaced.

Batesmanor Furniture (a) Essay

Charlton Bates-President of BatesManor Furniture and great-grandson of founder. Charlton is the key decision maker and must analyze the recommendation to increase his normal advertising spending percentage in the next year. Being the President of a small furniture manufacturer, Mr. Bates knows that his bottom line is very important as BatesManor begins to feel the pressure of dwindling margins due to rising manufacturing costs. Dr. Thomas Berry- Consultant to BatesManor that is trying to help Mr. Bates work through the issue of increasing advertising budget. Due to the nature of his work, Dr. Berry’s job as a consultant and reputation are on the line. Mike Hervey- Mike Hervey is a partner at the ad agency Hervey and Bernham. He is asking Mr. Bates to increase his consumer-advertising budget by about 40% ($562k to $787k). He has been analyzing target markets, their habits, and greatest purchase influencers. As with Dr. Berry, if this advertising campaign is adopted and fails, Mr. Hervey can lose a customer in BatesManor. John Bott- As the VP of sales, John is concerned with making sure there are dedicated BatesManor sales people working with the 1,000 high quality department stores that are carrying their furniture. Mr. Bott is very familiar with the competitive edge provided by a knowledgeable and driven sales force; and is keen to keep his team properly staffed and trained. Department Stores Selling BatesManor Furniture- High quality department stores may have agreements with BatesManor that will require them to match advertising expenses. While this may indeed increase sales, it will cost the stores extra that they may not have expected to spend. 10 Full-Time Salespeople- This team is tasked with introducing their line to the department stores carrying BatesManor furniture. Being commissioned salesmen and women, they may also benefit from an increase in sales. They could also suffer if they ad campaign falls short of expectations. 2 Regional Sales Managers- Similar concerns as above, but are in need of another salesperson. The advertising decision may impact their ability to hire new personnel. Furniture Manufactures (As an industry)- If BatesManor decides to increase consumer advertising, it could lead to a trend being set on the advertising front. This could cause others to have to follow suit in order to be able to keep up with the competition. This could prove to be costly in an industry dealing with rising costs. Baby Boomer Customers- The target market of BatesManor, this is the generation that is driving changes in the way furniture is marketed.